關(guān)于我們
- 聯(lián)系我們
- 加入我們
- 服務(wù)內(nèi)容
地址:北京市海淀區(qū)中關(guān)村北大街100號(hào)(北樓)北京大學(xué)建筑與景觀設(shè)計(jì)學(xué)院一層 Email:info@landscape.cn
Copyright ? 2013-2022 景觀中國(guó)(www.cncwe.org)版權(quán)所有 京ICP備05068035號(hào) 京公海網(wǎng)安備 110108000058號(hào)
British Landscape Architecture: History and Education
英國(guó)景觀建筑:歷史和教育
By Maggie Roe
馬吉 羅
Introduction
介紹
The profession of Landscape Architecture emerged from a long tradition in Britain of designing, managing and cultivating the landscape. The understanding of the landscape is manifest in its manipulation, as seen particularly in the farms of the wealthy and in gardens over many, many years. One could argue therefore that the wisdom and skills of landscape architecture are deeply embedded within the British psyche even though the history of the landscape profession in Britain is not a long one in relation to many other professions. Generally, these traditions relate to landscape that was privately owned. However, in the 1930s new ideas developed which were to do with public external spaces rather than private gardens or estates. The ideas were based on a concern for ‘landscape without boundaries’ (Moggridge, 1998). They had far-reaching effects on the design and layout of all types of landscapes including city open or green spaces, forestry design, housing design, countryside access, business and industrial landscapes, road landscapes, playgrounds etc. The Profession of Landscape Architecture in Britain emerged as a discipline that embraced all these concerns and therefore covered much more than private garden design. This chapter aims to provide a concise review of the history and development of the profession in Britain and the influence it has had on the education of landscape architects. The present educational situation is discussed in light of contemporary thinking in British landscape practice and in light of a growing demand by international students to obtain British qualifications in landscape architecture. 在英國(guó),景觀設(shè)計(jì)師的職業(yè)是隨著對(duì)景觀的設(shè)計(jì),管理和培育開(kāi)墾這個(gè)長(zhǎng)期的傳統(tǒng)而出現(xiàn)的.經(jīng)過(guò)很多年, 就像我們所看到的,尤其是在有錢人的農(nóng)場(chǎng)和花園,對(duì)景觀的理解在實(shí)踐中逐漸明確.即使在英國(guó)景觀設(shè)計(jì)的職業(yè)與許多其他職業(yè)相比時(shí)間并不算長(zhǎng),有人還是會(huì)辯稱景觀建筑學(xué)的智慧和技巧深刻地蘊(yùn)含了大不列顛的精神.一般說(shuō)來(lái),這些傳統(tǒng)都與私人擁有的景觀有關(guān).然而,在19世紀(jì)30年代,并非因?yàn)樗郊一▓@或不動(dòng)產(chǎn),而是公共外部空間使新的觀念得到了發(fā)展.這個(gè)觀念是基于對(duì)《無(wú)邊界的景觀》(Moggridge, 1998)的關(guān)注.他們對(duì)所有種類的設(shè)計(jì)和規(guī)劃有著深遠(yuǎn)的影響,包括城市開(kāi)放空間和綠地,林場(chǎng)設(shè)計(jì),建筑設(shè)計(jì),郊區(qū)入口,商業(yè)和工業(yè)景觀,道路景觀,運(yùn)動(dòng)場(chǎng)等等.在英國(guó),景觀建筑師的職業(yè)是作為一門學(xué)科而出現(xiàn)的,這個(gè)學(xué)科包含了所有的這些關(guān)注點(diǎn),因此它比私家花園設(shè)計(jì)覆蓋面寬廣得多.這一章主要是對(duì)英國(guó)景觀歷史和職業(yè)的發(fā)展提供一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)明的回顧和它在景觀建筑學(xué)教育上已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生的影響.對(duì)目前景觀教育的討論則是根據(jù)當(dāng)代英國(guó)景觀實(shí)踐中的思想和根據(jù)國(guó)際學(xué)生對(duì)取得英國(guó)景觀建筑界的執(zhí)照的日益增長(zhǎng)的需要而進(jìn)行的.
The Emergence of a Profession
職業(yè)的出現(xiàn)
As already indicated, the roots of the profession in Britain lie in gardening and garden design rather than architecture or agriculture, as can be seen in a number of other countries. However agriculture for many landowners in Britain had from the eighteenth century involved a passion for creating ’elysiums’ or ornamental farms on their estates. In 1975 Geoffrey Jellicoe, often regarded as one of the most influential people on the development of British landscape architecture, stated: ‘The world is moving into a phase when landscape design may well be recognized as the most comprehensive of the arts’ (Jellicoe & Jellicoe, 1975:7). He believed that the realisation that designing the collective landscape was a ‘social necessity’ rather than an art ‘confined to private gardens and parks’ had provided the conditions necessary for the emergence of the profession in the early part of the 20th century. Fricker (1969) records that the creation of the professional body of landscape architecture in Britain was conceived in 1928 under the title British Association of Garden Architects, but that by the beginning of 1930 this had changed to the Institute of Landscape Architects as a more accurate description of the work of those involved. This title was influenced by the American use of the term landscape architecture and indicated the view that the profession should be seen to be addressing issues of the public landscape. Practice in the USA was more advanced than in Britain at this time where most of those involved in the establishment of the Institute were only working on the design of private gardens not public spaces (Aldous & Clouston, 1979). The character of the early Landscape Institute was redolent of a now bygone age in the professions with membership characterised largely by the famous English phenomenon – the ‘old boy’ network (that is, it was important who you knew not what you knew). There was no particular qualification for entry - except that you had been invited to apply, you had to declare you had no commercial gardening interests and you generally had to be a well-known ‘someone’. It would though be fair to say that candidates also had to show they had actually achieved something significant in design terms to be accepted. It is clear that there were some very strong characters amongst the 30-40 members at that time and they had a remarkable influence on the development of the profession through publications, teaching and practice in Britain and throughout the world.
正像我們已經(jīng)提到過(guò)的,在不列顛,職業(yè)的根源在于園藝和花園設(shè)計(jì)而不是建筑和農(nóng)藝,這在許多其他國(guó)家也可以看到.然而對(duì)于許多英國(guó)土地所有者來(lái)說(shuō),農(nóng)藝從十八世紀(jì)以來(lái)包含了一種在他們的地產(chǎn)上創(chuàng)造”極樂(lè)世界”或裝飾農(nóng)莊的激情.Geoffrey Jellicoe這位常常被認(rèn)為是在英國(guó)景觀建筑學(xué)的發(fā)展上最具影響力的人物之一,他在1975年說(shuō)到:”世界正向一個(gè)階段移進(jìn),在這個(gè)階段里景觀設(shè)計(jì)將被認(rèn)為是最綜合的藝術(shù)”(Jellicoe & Jellicoe, 1975:7).他相信,設(shè)計(jì)公眾的景觀是一種社會(huì)的必需,而不是一種”被限制在私人花園和公園”的藝術(shù),這一現(xiàn)實(shí)提供了二十世紀(jì)早期職業(yè)化出現(xiàn)的必須條件.Fricker 在1969年記錄道:英國(guó)景觀建筑學(xué)專業(yè)人員在1982年的創(chuàng)作是在”英國(guó)園藝建筑師聯(lián)合會(huì)”的名銜之下進(jìn)行的,然而從1930年開(kāi)始就把它變成了”景觀建筑師協(xié)會(huì)”,這也是一種對(duì)有關(guān)的工作的更精確的描述.這一名銜受了景觀建筑學(xué)術(shù)語(yǔ)的美式用法的的影響,也暗示了該職業(yè)應(yīng)該被視作專注于公共景觀的事物.這一時(shí)期在美國(guó)的實(shí)踐遠(yuǎn)比英國(guó)先進(jìn)得多,在英國(guó),絕大多數(shù)與建立該組織有關(guān)的人都只為私人花園做過(guò)設(shè)計(jì)而并非公共空間(Aldous & Clouston, 1979)。早期景觀學(xué)會(huì)的特性有一種時(shí)下過(guò)去時(shí)代職業(yè)界的意味,其成員資格大都具有著名的英國(guó)現(xiàn)象—— “校友關(guān)系”的特點(diǎn)(那就是說(shuō),你知道的那個(gè)人并不是你所了解的,這一點(diǎn)十分重要)。進(jìn)入學(xué)會(huì)并沒(méi)有特殊的限制條件——除了你被邀請(qǐng)申請(qǐng)加入,你必須宣稱自己對(duì)商業(yè)園藝設(shè)計(jì)沒(méi)有興趣,同時(shí)一般來(lái)說(shuō)你將成為著名的“某人”。盡管公正地說(shuō),候選人必須展示他們?cè)谠O(shè)計(jì)中實(shí)際上所已經(jīng)取得的重要成就才能被接受。但是十分清楚的是,在那個(gè)時(shí)代,在30-40個(gè)成員之中有一些很強(qiáng)勁的人物,他們通過(guò)出版,教學(xué)和在英國(guó)乃至全世界的設(shè)計(jì)實(shí)踐對(duì)這個(gè)職業(yè)的發(fā)展起到了非凡的影響。
One of these early members was Sylvia Crowe whose remarkable perceptiveness and lifetime of thought and observation in relation to landscape issues was celebrated and recognised by the British establishment in 1973 when she was made a Dame of the British Empire. Her articles, letters and books had, and still have, considerable influence both at home in the UK and abroad. In the 2004 Landscape Institute Awards Dame Sylvia Crowe was identified as the landscape architect who has made the greatest contribution to, or had the most significant influence on, the UK landscape in the past 75 years (Landscape, 2004). Another member, Geoffrey Jellicoe has been described as the ‘moving spirit which brought landscape design out of the private domain in the early part of the 20th Century, and into the public domain in the latter part’ (Roger Stringer quoted in Landscape Institute, 1996). Mike Downing has said that although Geoffrey Jellicoe has been described as ‘the life and soul of the British Landscape Institute, Sylvia Crowe was its conscience’ (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005). As a young man Jellicoe worked with Parker and Unwin who had already been involved in the design of Letchworth Garden City (1903) and Welwyn Garden City (1923) (Fricker, 1969). The thinking, which Parker espoused, that opportunities should be provided for ordinary people to connect more closely with landscape, and thereby providing greater educational opportunities and social justice can be seen to have influenced a number of landscape designers of the period. Spring 1934 saw the publication of an influential magazine Landscape and Garden, started by Richard Susell and subsequently edited with quarterly notes by Brenda Colvin (eventually to become the journal Landscape Design, now Landscape). During the 1930s there was also an influx of visitors from Germany (e.g. Gropius, Breur, Moholoy-Nagy) who influenced the general state of art and landscape architecture in Britain towards more modernist thinking as was reflected by Tunnard in this book Gardens in the Modern Landscape in 1938.
Sylvia Crowe是早期成員之一,她非凡的感知力和她關(guān)于景觀問(wèn)題終其一生的思想和觀察都非常著名,并在1973年被英國(guó)官方所認(rèn)可,時(shí)值她被英皇授予女爵士。她的文章,信件和書籍不論在英國(guó)和其他國(guó)家已經(jīng)有了并且仍然有著相當(dāng)大的影響力。在2004年度景觀學(xué)會(huì)獎(jiǎng)中,Sylvia Crowe女爵士被看作是對(duì)英國(guó)景觀界過(guò)去的75年歷史中作出了最偉大貢獻(xiàn)或起到了最重要影響的景觀建筑師。另外一個(gè)成員Geoffrey Jellicoe,他被看作是“在20世紀(jì)前期把景觀設(shè)計(jì)帶出私人領(lǐng)域同時(shí)在20世紀(jì)后期把它帶入公共領(lǐng)域的倡導(dǎo)人” (Roger Stringer在1996年《景觀學(xué)會(huì)》中的引用) Mike Downing 說(shuō)盡管Geoffrey Jellicoe 被看作是“英國(guó)景觀學(xué)會(huì)的生命和靈魂,而Sylvia Crowe是它的道德心” (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005)。作為一個(gè)年輕人,Jellicoe 與Parker 和 Unwin一起工作,而這兩個(gè)人早已在Letchworth花園城市(1903)和 Welwyn 花園城市(1923)的設(shè)計(jì)工作中了(Fricker, 1969)。派克支持一種思想,那就是應(yīng)該提供機(jī)會(huì)給普通人與景觀更接近地聯(lián)系,因此也要提供更多的教育機(jī)會(huì)和社會(huì)觀點(diǎn),我們可以看到這種思想已經(jīng)影響了非常多的這一時(shí)期的景觀設(shè)計(jì)師。這一思想見(jiàn)諸于具有影響力的刊物《Landscape and Garden》這本雜志1934年的春季版,從Richard Susell最初開(kāi)始,隨后由Brenda Colvin繼續(xù)做每季的評(píng)論(這本雜志逐漸成為《景觀設(shè)計(jì)》期刊,也就是現(xiàn)在的《景觀》)。在十九世紀(jì)三十年代有一些德國(guó)的學(xué)者進(jìn)入英國(guó)(如Gropius, Breur, Moholoy-Nagy),就像Tunnard在《Gardens in the Modern Landscape》一書中所反映的那樣,這些人全面地影響了英國(guó)的藝術(shù)和景觀建筑學(xué),使之向著更現(xiàn)代的思想發(fā)展。
A major influence on the development of the profession, on opportunities for involvement in public landscape and on the public view of landscapes, was the 1939-45 war. During the actual war years there was very little activity in the profession (Aldous & Clouston, 1979) but post-war practice indicates the extent of the war’s influence on thinking and practice opportunities. During the war many of those involved in the profession were sent abroad to serve in the armed forces along with much of the rest of the British population. Not only did this mean that they saw and experienced other landscapes and cultures, but they were literally exposed to new ways of looking at the world - from the air, from the sea and on land. Fricker (1969) asks: ‘Is it too much to suggest that for so many [ordinary people].. to see their tiny sea-locked land from a sky vantage point was what gave cogency to national planning?’ (p.11). Indeed it is perhaps hard for us to imagine the revelation such an experience might have induced as we are so used to aerial photographs and other similar representations of landscape. There was a feeling that building a ‘better Britain’ in terms of bricks and landscape, meant that a ‘better environment’ was also being created (Jellicoe quoted in Aldous & Clouston, 1979).
在戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間很多與該職業(yè)有關(guān)的人和很多其他英國(guó)人一樣被送往國(guó)外在軍隊(duì)服役. 這不僅意味著他們看到和感受到別樣的景觀和文化,同時(shí)他們被完全地暴露在一種看世界的新的方式中——從空中,從海上,從陸地。Fricker 在1969年曾發(fā)出這樣的疑問(wèn),“對(duì)于眾多普通人來(lái)說(shuō),從空中看到他們的小小的被海洋環(huán)繞著的陸地成為了他們進(jìn)行國(guó)家規(guī)劃的力量,這種假設(shè)是否是被夸大了呢?” 確實(shí),對(duì)我們來(lái)說(shuō),難以想象這種經(jīng)驗(yàn)所可能促成的啟示,因?yàn)槲覀円呀?jīng)對(duì)鳥瞰的照片和其他類似的景觀表現(xiàn)方式非常的熟悉了。有一種看法就是建設(shè)一個(gè)在建筑和景觀方面“更美好的英國(guó)”就意味著“更好的環(huán)境”應(yīng)該同時(shí)被創(chuàng)造出來(lái)。(Jellicoe quoted in Aldous & Clouston, 1979) 在景觀職業(yè)的發(fā)展上,在設(shè)計(jì)公共景觀的時(shí)機(jī)上和對(duì)景觀的公眾見(jiàn)解上來(lái)說(shuō),1935年到45年的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)是對(duì)這些方面的一個(gè)主要的影響. 在真正的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間,景觀職業(yè)基本上沒(méi)有設(shè)計(jì)的活動(dòng)(Aldous & Clouston, 1979),但是戰(zhàn)后的實(shí)踐即顯示出在思想和實(shí)踐機(jī)會(huì)上戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)影響的深度和廣度.
The effect of the war was then to produce a generation of landscape architects who looked more broadly at the landscape in terms of scale and other important issues. Town and country planning had an important influence; the need post-war for fast solutions to social and economic problems and to provide ‘homes fit for heroes’ meant that landscapes were changing at a considerable rate. Large-scale planting of coniferous forest in Britain was being carried out and agricultural technology had changed dramatically. Many new Acts of Parliament were passed which had considerable affect on the landscape e.g. the 1946 New Towns Act, the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act, and the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Bill. The landscape architects of the time had considerable scope to experiment and develop their theories and ideals particularly in relation to the landscapes of the New Towns. A number of them also wrote books, which are still commonly used by students today. Others passed on their thoughts through teaching a new generation of landscape architects at the University courses being established. Many young landscape architects were influenced by the Scandinavian approach to landscape through Professor Brian Hackett at Newcastle University who had visited Scandinavia in the late 1940s. The Newcastle course was an important influence on the development of the profession, producing the majority of students at the time and for the next ten years.
戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)的結(jié)果接下來(lái)就是使之產(chǎn)生了新一代的景觀建筑師,這些人對(duì)景觀在尺度和其他重要問(wèn)題上都看得更遠(yuǎn)。城鎮(zhèn)和郊區(qū)的規(guī)劃有了一個(gè)重要的影響;戰(zhàn)后,迅速解決社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)問(wèn)題和提供“為英雄安家”服務(wù)的需要意味著景觀正以一種可觀的速度發(fā)生著變化。 在英國(guó),實(shí)行了大范圍針葉樹(shù)林的種植,農(nóng)業(yè)技術(shù)也飛速改變。許多新的國(guó)會(huì)立法被通過(guò),這在景觀上起到了巨大的作用,例如1946年的《新城鎮(zhèn)法案》,1947年的《城鎮(zhèn)和郊區(qū)規(guī)劃法案》和1949年的《國(guó)家公園和鄉(xiāng)間議案》。那個(gè)時(shí)代的景觀建筑師有相當(dāng)大的活動(dòng)范圍去實(shí)踐和發(fā)展他們的理論和理想,尤其是與新城有關(guān)的景觀。他們中的很多人也著書,這些書一般來(lái)說(shuō)至今仍然被學(xué)生所使用。另外一些人通過(guò)在大學(xué)逐漸建立一些課程并教授新一代的景觀建筑師來(lái)傳遞他們的思想。很多年輕的景觀建筑師通過(guò)在Newcastle大學(xué)的Brian Hackett教授,受到了斯堪的納維亞人對(duì)待景觀的手法的影響,該教授曾經(jīng)在19世紀(jì)40年代后期游歷過(guò)斯堪的納維亞。Newcastle大學(xué)的課程對(duì)于景觀職業(yè)的發(fā)展,在那個(gè)時(shí)代和以后的十年內(nèi)產(chǎn)生這個(gè)學(xué)生的專業(yè)都具有重要的意義。
In 1946 entry to the Institute was changed to entry by examination and this had a ‘slow but distinguishable shift in the make up of the membership’ (Fricker, 1969:12) as well as the outlook of the profession as a whole. However in 1949 the new President of the Institute Thomas Sharpe restated what he saw as the aims of profession: ‘I think I can say truly that we regard the work which we seek to advance, and the need of that work’s being done well, as far more important than our personal share in it’ (Fricker, 1969:12).
1946年,進(jìn)入學(xué)會(huì)的資格變成需要由考試通過(guò),這是一個(gè)“緩慢的但在成員的構(gòu)成上來(lái)說(shuō)是顯而易見(jiàn)的變化” (Fricker, 1969:12),正如這個(gè)職業(yè)在總體上的前景一樣。而在1949年,學(xué)會(huì)的新主席Thomas Sharpe重申了他所理解的這個(gè)職業(yè)的目標(biāo):“我想我可以確實(shí)地說(shuō),我們關(guān)注著這個(gè)我們一直致力于提高的工作,作好這份工作的需要遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)比我們個(gè)人從中的參與更重要” (Fricker, 1969:12)。
During the 1950s and 1960s there were the continuing influences that resource use and desire to build up natural resources had on the landscape. This was really a result of a post-war wish to ensure that Britain could be self-sufficient in terms of resources as far as possible. It was also to encourage economic growth and stability. Landscape architects were involved in large-scale infrastructure and landscape planning projects such as land reclamation, power station schemes and road building as well as housing estates and forestry design. The Landscape Reclamation Project in the north-east of England, spearheaded by Newcastle University, restored land from coal mining and waste areas. It was ground breaking in its practical and interdisciplinary nature involving landscape architects, botanists, soils specialists and others. The report (Landscape Reclamation Vols 1 & 2, 1971) and the book Landscape Reclamation Practice (1977) also emerged from this innovative partnership – a novel approach in those days (Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005). Influence from modern art and from international designers such as Roberto Burle Marx can also be clearly seen at this time. The ‘space age’ influenced not only detailed designs (Fricker, 1969), but also a way of seeing the ecology of the planet and conceiving large areas of land and sea as connected and interdependent systems. Scientific thinking had considerable influence in a number of other ways on landscape architectural thinking as can be seen in the Scottish landscape architect Ian McHarg’s influential book Design with Nature (1969). This scientific influence can also be seen clearly in the work of the landscape architects of the 1970s and 1980s who experimented with ‘ecological’ landscapes. At Warrington New Town in the north-west of England, ‘nature-like’ landscapes were being created on derelict sites and the involvement of ecologists and scientists became more apparent (See Tregay & Gustavson, 1983; Tregay 1985). Landscape architects became important in the development of community-based and participatory methods as can be seen in the 1970s at the redevelopment of the housing at Byker, Newcastle upon Tyne, and later in the Groundwork Trusts which were first established in the 1980s. Although numbers of professionals were still small, opportunities were considerable. By 1969 membership of the Institute of Landscape Architects was approximately 900 and by 1978, 1,500. However the vast majority of these were students. Towards the end of the 1970s – all spheres of life as well as the physical environment were being questioned – people’s values changed rapidly – the optimism of the sixties gave way to the pessimism of the late seventies. Landscape practice was affected directly and indirectly by cuts in public spending, post-industrial change, unemployment, the beginnings of globalisation (new uncertainties in the political arena e.g. the end of the Cold War), uncontrolled polluting industrial practices, agricultural change and intensification.
在19世紀(jì)50到60年代之間,對(duì)于景觀設(shè)計(jì)有一種持續(xù)的影響力,那就是資源利用和希望增加自然資源的愿望。這確實(shí)是戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)后的一種結(jié)果,人們希望能保證英國(guó)在資源方面盡可能自給自足。這也鼓勵(lì)了經(jīng)濟(jì)的增長(zhǎng)和經(jīng)濟(jì)穩(wěn)定。景觀建筑師不僅進(jìn)行房屋和林地設(shè)計(jì),同時(shí)也參與到大規(guī)?;A(chǔ)設(shè)施和景觀規(guī)劃項(xiàng)目上,例如開(kāi)墾荒地,發(fā)電站規(guī)劃和修筑道路。由Newcastle 大學(xué)最先開(kāi)始推進(jìn)的英格蘭東北部的景觀改造項(xiàng)目從煤礦和廢墟中重建了這一地區(qū)。這一工程在實(shí)踐上和各學(xué)科之間的關(guān)系上徹底打破了原來(lái)的認(rèn)識(shí),包括景觀建筑師,植物學(xué)家,土壤專家等等。關(guān)于這項(xiàng)工程的報(bào)告(景觀改造卷一和卷二,1971)和書籍《景觀改造工程》(1977)也由這一創(chuàng)新的合作關(guān)系——“那個(gè)時(shí)代的一種新方式”(Downing, Pers. Comm., 2005)而出現(xiàn)。現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)和國(guó)際上的設(shè)計(jì)者諸如Roberto Burle Marx 所帶來(lái)的影響也能在這一時(shí)期被清晰地看到?!疤諘r(shí)代”不僅影響到細(xì)部的設(shè)計(jì)(Fricker, 1969),而且是一種看這個(gè)星球的生態(tài)系統(tǒng)的方式,一種把陸地和海洋這個(gè)巨大區(qū)域作為聯(lián)系的和互相依賴的系統(tǒng)來(lái)構(gòu)思的方式??茖W(xué)的思考對(duì)景觀建筑學(xué)上產(chǎn)生大量的其他的思考方式有著相當(dāng)?shù)挠绊懥?,這從蘇格蘭景觀建筑師Ian McHarg的具影響力的書《Design with Nature設(shè)計(jì)依據(jù)自然》(1969)中即可見(jiàn)一斑。這種科學(xué)的影響力可以在十九世紀(jì)七十年代到八十年代的景觀建筑師的作品中被清晰地辨認(rèn),這些人曾實(shí)驗(yàn)了“生態(tài)的”景觀。在英格蘭西北部的Warrington 新城,“仿自然”的景觀在廢棄的場(chǎng)所上被創(chuàng)造出來(lái),同時(shí)生態(tài)學(xué)家和科學(xué)家在從中的參與開(kāi)始越來(lái)越凸顯。景觀建筑師在基于社區(qū)和公眾參與的工作方式的發(fā)展上變的越來(lái)越重要,就像在十九世紀(jì)七十年代在緊鄰泰恩河的Newcastle,Byker地區(qū)和之后在Groundwork Trusts的住宅群再開(kāi)發(fā)中看到的一樣,后者始建與十九世紀(jì)八十年代。雖然職業(yè)景觀建筑師的數(shù)量還很少,但是機(jī)會(huì)卻是相當(dāng)?shù)乜捎^。到1969年,景觀建筑師學(xué)會(huì)的成員人數(shù)大概有900人,而到1978年發(fā)展到1500人。然而這中間的大多數(shù)還是學(xué)生。到十九世紀(jì)七十年代末,所有領(lǐng)域的生活包括自然環(huán)境都被質(zhì)疑了——人們的價(jià)值觀迅速地變化——六十年代的樂(lè)觀主義讓位給了七十年代后期的悲觀主義。景觀的實(shí)踐直接的或間接的受到了很多因素的影響,如政府開(kāi)支的削減,后工業(yè)時(shí)代的來(lái)臨,失業(yè),全球化的開(kāi)始(在政治舞臺(tái)上新的不確定因素的浮現(xiàn),比如冷戰(zhàn)的結(jié)束),未受控制的污染的工業(yè)生產(chǎn),農(nóng)業(yè)的變化和強(qiáng)化。
Amongst the most influential practitioners and writers of the period post-war to the 1980s were Elizabeth Beazley (Design and Detail of the Space Between Buildings, 1960; Designed for Recreation, 1969), Brenda Colvin (Land and Landscape, 1970; Trees for Town & Country, 1972), Sylvia Crowe (Tomorrow’s Landscape, 1956; The Landscape of Power, 1958; The Landscape of Roads, 1960; Forestry in the Landscape, 1966), Nan Fairbrother (New Lives, New Landscapes, 1970), Geoffrey Jellicoe (Studies in Landscape Design, 1960-70; The Landscape of Man, 1975), Peter Shepheard (Modern Gardens, 1953), Clifford Tandy (Handbook of Urban Landscape, 1970; Landscape of Industry, 1975) and Arnold Weddle (Landscape Techniques, 1979). In the 1970s the Landscape Institute was expanded to its present three professional ‘divisions’: landscape architecture, landscape science and landscape management, now all generally encompassed under the description of landscape professionals. Landscape Scientists are seen to specialise in the physical and biological aspects of landscape design and management and are primarily concerned with passive description, understanding and explanation of the processes which underlie landscape change (Thompson, 1999); Landscape Managers are concerned with the long term care and development of new and existing landscapes, also with policy and planning for further landscape management and use; Landscape Architects are regarded primarily as designers and with landscape managers are actively involved in manipulating the landscape. In recent years there has also been discussion as to whether a distinct landscape planning division should be created, but there is a general feeling that the work of landscape planning and landscape assessment – which could also be considered as requiring separate specialist skills – should remain under the umbrella term of landscape architecture.
從戰(zhàn)后到十九世紀(jì)八十年代,景觀職業(yè)中最具影響力的從業(yè)者和著書者有Elizabeth Beazley(《建筑間空間的設(shè)計(jì)和細(xì)節(jié)》1960;《情趣設(shè)計(jì)》,1969),Brenda Colvin(《土地和景觀》1970;《城鎮(zhèn)和郊區(qū)的樹(shù)木》1972),Sylvia Crowe(《未來(lái)的景觀》,1956;《景觀的力量》,1958;《道路的景觀》,1960;《景觀中的林地》,1966),Nan Fairbrother(《新生活新景觀》,1970),Geoffrey Jellicoe(《景觀設(shè)計(jì)中的研究》,1960-70;《人類的景觀》,1975),Peter Shepheard(《現(xiàn)代園林》,1953);Clifford Tandy(《城市景觀手冊(cè)》,1970;《工業(yè)景觀》,1975);Arnold Weddle(《景觀的技術(shù)》,1979)。在十九世紀(jì)七十年代,景觀學(xué)會(huì)擴(kuò)大到現(xiàn)在的三個(gè)專業(yè)的部分:景觀建筑學(xué),景觀科學(xué)和景觀管理, 現(xiàn)在這三部分通常都包含在景觀職業(yè)的種類之下。景觀科學(xué)家分支被認(rèn)為是在景觀設(shè)計(jì)和管理的自然和生物方面作專門研究,主要參與對(duì)過(guò)程的被動(dòng)的記述,理解和解釋,這種過(guò)程是景觀轉(zhuǎn)變的基礎(chǔ)(Thompson, 1999);景觀管理者分支涉及新的和現(xiàn)存景觀的長(zhǎng)期維護(hù)和發(fā)展,也參與進(jìn)一步景觀管理和利用的政策和計(jì)劃的制定;景觀建筑師分支主要是作為設(shè)計(jì)師的組織,同時(shí)也協(xié)同景觀管理者處理景觀問(wèn)題。近年來(lái),也有討論是否需要?jiǎng)?chuàng)建一個(gè)獨(dú)立的景觀規(guī)劃的分支,但是有一種普遍的認(rèn)識(shí)就是景觀規(guī)劃和景觀評(píng)價(jià)——這也被認(rèn)為需要單獨(dú)的專業(yè)技能——應(yīng)該保持在景觀建筑學(xué)的傘形分支下。
During the 1980s and 1990s links were made between social deprivation and ecological degradation. The rise of the green movement and environmental concern fuelled the move towards environmental renewal as a way of regenerating urban areas in which many landscape architects worked. However a strong belief in the market economy resulted in the proliferation of ‘flagship projects’ such as was to be found at the Teesside Development Corporation (TDC) area in the north-east of England. This was demand-led development planning and deregulation. These Urban Development Corporations were their own planning authorities which bypassed the existing democratic structures (Planning Authorities). Regeneration projects were based on the idea of the ‘trickle-down effect’ i.e. if you provided big solutions and executive development this would raise the potential of the area and attract in big new businesses which would in turn provide jobs and raise the earning capacity and desirability of the neighbourhoods. The landscape designs produced by this were in some cases monumental, but were also clinical and ignored cultural and social associations and were often carved out at the expense of long-term ecological considerations.
十九世紀(jì)八十年代到九十年代期間,社會(huì)貧困和生態(tài)退化諸多聯(lián)系。綠色運(yùn)動(dòng)的興起和對(duì)環(huán)境關(guān)注的高漲為 環(huán)境的更新提供了動(dòng)力,以此作為重建城市地區(qū)的一種方式,而很多景觀建筑師即在這城市中間工作。然而市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)中存在的強(qiáng)烈的信仰導(dǎo)致了“旗艦計(jì)劃”的增殖,如同在英格蘭東北部的Teesside 發(fā)展團(tuán)體 (TDC)地區(qū)所發(fā)現(xiàn)的那樣。這是需求引導(dǎo)的發(fā)展計(jì)劃和反常現(xiàn)象。這些城市發(fā)展團(tuán)體有他們特有的規(guī)劃?rùn)?quán)威組織,這些組織繞開(kāi)了現(xiàn)存的民主機(jī)構(gòu)(規(guī)劃?rùn)?quán)力機(jī)構(gòu))。重建計(jì)劃建立在“涓滴效果”理念的基礎(chǔ)之上,也就是說(shuō)如果你提供了有效地解決方案和可執(zhí)行的發(fā)展計(jì)劃,就提高了這一地區(qū)的潛能,吸引重要的新的商業(yè),這會(huì)反過(guò)來(lái)能提供工作機(jī)會(huì),提高收入和鄰里關(guān)系的滿意度。這時(shí)產(chǎn)生的景觀設(shè)計(jì),某一些可以說(shuō)是不朽的,但也是沒(méi)有感情的,忽略了文化的和社會(huì)的聯(lián)系,并且經(jīng)常以長(zhǎng)期的生態(tài)為代價(jià)開(kāi)辟出道路。
In Britain in the late 1990s there emerged a much more questioning approach to the way landscape was planned. Membership of the European Union (EU) brought with it many new laws and regulations concerning landscape. Environmental Assessment (EA) tools and techniques developed and Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), which emerged from environmental assessment, became an essential part of landscape architectural practice.。Along with this there is now considerable interest in character assessment of local and regional landscapes to retain and enhance existing identity and provide new identities in degraded landscapes. In an interview in 1991 Geoffrey Jellicoe said: ‘As the world becomes more and more mechanistic we will need to be anchored in nature for the sake of the sanity of the species. I don’t think any of us yet realise the vital place that landscapers will play over the next 200 years’ (Horticulture Week, 1991:24). Certainly over the last ten years or so there has been a revolution in the way landscape architects in the UK have had to consider issues of sustainability - partly as a result of increasing regulation and partly as a result of increased awareness of sustainability issues. Sustainability as a concept has also proved useful in landscape architecture in conceptualising what many landscape architects have been thinking and working towards for many years (see Benson & Roe, 2000). The concept has been most valuable as a comparative term i.e. more sustainable or less unsustainable and because it indicates a getting away from ‘business as usual’ (Thayer, 1994:317). Three key, and now familiar, components have emerged from the sustainability debate: economic sustainability, social sustainability and environmental sustainability – with a strong emphasis on equity and futurity. In particular, demands for more sustainable development has influenced landscape practice including the use of environmental impact assessment (EIA) methods, the emergence of Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) and consideration of Life Cycle Assessment of construction materials used in landscape schemes.
在十九世紀(jì)九十年代后期的英國(guó),產(chǎn)生了一種更具爭(zhēng)議的景觀規(guī)劃的方法。歐洲聯(lián)盟(EU)的會(huì)員資格的到來(lái)也帶來(lái)了很多新的法規(guī)和與景觀有關(guān)的規(guī)定。環(huán)境評(píng)估協(xié)會(huì)(EA)的手段和技術(shù)有了發(fā)展,景觀特征評(píng)估協(xié)會(huì)(LCA),這個(gè)協(xié)會(huì)由環(huán)境評(píng)估協(xié)會(huì)而來(lái),已經(jīng)成為了景觀建筑學(xué)實(shí)踐的核心部分隨著這些協(xié)會(huì)的發(fā)展,現(xiàn)在有相當(dāng)大的興趣在當(dāng)?shù)氐暮偷貐^(qū)的景觀特征評(píng)估中保持和加強(qiáng)現(xiàn)有的評(píng)判標(biāo)準(zhǔn),同時(shí)在退化了的景觀中提供新的辨認(rèn)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在1991年的一次采訪中,Geoffrey Jellicoe 說(shuō)道:“當(dāng)世界變得越來(lái)越機(jī)械化的時(shí)候,出于保全物種的考慮,我們需要依靠自然來(lái)工作。我并不認(rèn)為我們中的任何人已經(jīng)意識(shí)到現(xiàn)在生機(jī)勃勃的地方在今后的200年里景觀師將無(wú)所作為。的確,在過(guò)去大約十年的時(shí)間里英國(guó)的景觀建筑師在考慮可持續(xù)發(fā)展問(wèn)題的方式上有了一個(gè)革命——部分是因?yàn)橹饾u發(fā)展的法規(guī)所促成的結(jié)果,部分是因?yàn)榭沙掷m(xù)發(fā)展問(wèn)題已經(jīng)被人認(rèn)識(shí) 。把很多景觀建筑師多年來(lái)所作的思考和努力的方向形成一個(gè)概念,而可持續(xù)發(fā)展作為這個(gè)概念在景觀建筑學(xué)界被證明是有用的。這個(gè)概念作為一個(gè)比較的術(shù)語(yǔ)具有最大的價(jià)值,即“更”可持續(xù)或“較少”不可持續(xù),同時(shí)也因?yàn)樗凳玖藵u漸遠(yuǎn)離“照常營(yíng)業(yè)”的方式(Thayer, 1994:317)。三個(gè)關(guān)鍵的目前已被人所熟悉的組成部分已經(jīng)從可持續(xù)發(fā)展的論戰(zhàn)中形成:經(jīng)濟(jì)的可持續(xù)發(fā)展,社會(huì)的可持續(xù)發(fā)展和環(huán)境的可持續(xù)發(fā)展——強(qiáng)調(diào)了公平和未來(lái)。特別是更多的可持續(xù)發(fā)展的需求影響到景觀的實(shí)踐包括環(huán)境影響評(píng)估(EIA)方法的使用,可持續(xù)城市排水系統(tǒng)(SUDS)的出現(xiàn)和對(duì)在景觀設(shè)計(jì)中運(yùn)用的建筑材料的使用周期的評(píng)估的考慮。
It has been recognised that social systems in Britain have had a strong input in the determination of the pattern of the British landscape. In growing recognition of this, community consultation has now become a feature of many landscape schemes, as has greater integrated, cross-disciplinary and co-operative thinking with action described as a ‘comprehensive process of change, top-down and bottom-up, global and local, individual and collective’ (Irvine, 1999, p.331). Thompson (1999) supports the view that involvement of local communities ‘would seem to combine aesthetic, social and (potentially) ecological values in a worthwhile manner’ (p.34) and certainly the involvement of the actual users of the landscape in the design and management process is now seen as important and normal in most landscape projects. There is now an understanding that you cannot create greater sustainability by simply creating ’delightful places’ (interior or exterior) – you need to ask far more penetrating questions about ’who’ the space is being created for; ’why’ the space is being created and ’how’ the space is being created (the process), as well as ’what’ is being created (Roe, 2000) . Another particularly pertinent point is: will the answers to these questions actually create more sustainable landscapes? The profession in the UK is now developing a new set of professional tools in response to these changing requirements for landscape evaluation and in response to managing more participatory approaches to design.
顯而易見(jiàn),英國(guó)的社會(huì)體系對(duì)于英國(guó)景觀格調(diào)的決定有著強(qiáng)烈的參與性。在這一點(diǎn)逐漸得到重視的過(guò)程中,社區(qū)咨詢而今成為許多景觀方案的特色,使之具有更整合的﹑交叉學(xué)科的﹑協(xié)作的思想和與之匹配的被描述為一種“變化的綜合處理,自上而下的和自下而上的,全球的和地方的,個(gè)人的和集體的”行為(Irvine, 1999, p.331)。Thompson (1999)支持這樣的觀點(diǎn)那就是當(dāng)?shù)厣鐓^(qū)的參與“會(huì)有可能在一個(gè)值得做的方式里結(jié)合美學(xué)的,社會(huì)的和(潛在的)生態(tài)的價(jià)值” (p.34),當(dāng)然,景觀真正的使用者在設(shè)計(jì)和管理過(guò)程中的參與現(xiàn)在在大多數(shù)景觀的工程中看起來(lái)顯得重要而普通。如今有一種共識(shí)那就是你不可能通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)單地創(chuàng)造“愉悅的場(chǎng)所”(包括室內(nèi)的和室外的)就可以造就更完善的可持續(xù)——你需要提出關(guān)于諸如“什么”被創(chuàng)造出來(lái)了到為“誰(shuí)”而締造這個(gè)空間;這個(gè)空間“為何”被創(chuàng)造和“如何”(過(guò)程)被創(chuàng)造這類更敏銳的問(wèn)題(Roe, 2000)。另一個(gè)獨(dú)特的相關(guān)觀點(diǎn)是:這些問(wèn)題的答案真的能創(chuàng)造更可持續(xù)的景觀嗎?在英國(guó)的景觀職業(yè)現(xiàn)在發(fā)展了一套新的職業(yè)工具來(lái)回應(yīng)這些景觀評(píng)估的不斷變化的要求和對(duì)于管理更多可供分享的設(shè)計(jì)的方法的回應(yīng)。
[NextPage]
Education and Research
教育和研究
The development of professional education in Britain as we know it today really did not exist in any of the traditional professions until the 20th Century (Downing, 1992). As early as 1821 J. C. Loudon (1783-1843), the influential Scottish author and garden designer, brought attention to the poor training and conditions of young gardeners. He urged that more resources be provided and proposed a liberal and professional education be established to improve gardening in Britain and other European countries (Simo, 1988). He recommended the establishment of garden libraries and understood the profession as an academic as well as a practical art and science, recommending education to include regard for the individual’s moral, religious, and physical development. In Britain there is a tradition of the ‘gifted amateur’ particularly in relation to gardens and garden design. Gertrude Jekyll (1843-1932) can be regarded in this light: even though she had been trained as an artist, she has never really been regarded as a ‘professional’ in the modern sense of the word and in spite of her authorship of numerous influential books and articles on gardening and her considerable work with Edwin Lutyens the architect (Downing, 1992).
我們今天所知道的英國(guó)職業(yè)教育的發(fā)展都并不存在于任何傳統(tǒng)的職業(yè)當(dāng)中,這種情況一直持續(xù)到20世紀(jì)(Downing, 1992)。早在1821年,J. C. Loudon (1783-1843) ,這位具影響力的蘇格蘭作家和園藝家就給予年輕的園藝工作者的匱乏的職業(yè)培訓(xùn)和條件以關(guān)注。他力促提供更多的資源和提議建立一種自由的和職業(yè)的教育以提高英國(guó)和其他歐洲國(guó)家的園藝水平(Simo, 1988)。他推薦建立園藝圖書館,把這個(gè)職業(yè)不僅理解為實(shí)用藝術(shù)和科學(xué)也理解為一種學(xué)術(shù),建議教育應(yīng)該包括關(guān)注個(gè)人的道德,信仰和身體的發(fā)展在內(nèi)。在英國(guó),尤其是關(guān)于園藝和園藝設(shè)計(jì),有“天才的業(yè)余藝術(shù)家”的傳統(tǒng)。Gertrude Jekyll (1843-1932)在這方面可以視作一例:盡管她曾經(jīng)被作為一名畫家來(lái)培養(yǎng),她從來(lái)沒(méi)有被真正認(rèn)為是一個(gè)用現(xiàn)代含義來(lái)理解的“專業(yè)人員”,不管她著作了大量影響廣泛的關(guān)于園藝的書籍和文章,也不管她和建筑師Edwin Lutyens做了大量的相關(guān)的工作。
Early development of the education of landscape architects had little to do with the quality assurance systems and assessment of assessments with which UK higher education is bombarded today. Mike Downing, former Landscape Programmes Director (now retired) at Newcastle University writes that ‘the expansion of landscape education as we know it in the UK dates back to the early sixties, when first there were developed new graduate programmes at the old universities, and then the undergraduate streams at Polytechnics. From a trickle, there developed a torrent of graduates’. He traces the first formal teaching of Landscape Architecture to the University of Liverpool where Thomas Mawson (1861-1933), first President of the Landscape Institute, ran a programme of lectures to Architecture Students in 1909. The first Diploma course at undergraduate level was started in 1932, and in 1933 the recently established Institute of Landscape Architects published an examination syllabus. The external examination system was set up in1946 (Lancaster, 1987). In 1948 two new lectureships in landscape were created, one at Kings College, Newcastle (then part of Durham University) and the other at King’s College, University of London. The Newcastle course was strongly based on ecological principles of design under the influence of Professor Brian Hackett.
景觀建筑師教育的早期發(fā)展與質(zhì)量保證體系和對(duì)各種評(píng)論的評(píng)估幾乎沒(méi)有關(guān)系 ,這也是英國(guó)的高等教育如今強(qiáng)烈抨擊的。在Newcastle大學(xué)的前任“景觀規(guī)劃”的主管Mike Downing(現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)退休)寫道“我們所知道的在英國(guó)的景觀教育的擴(kuò)展可以追溯到六十年代早期,那時(shí)首先在一些老的大學(xué)里面開(kāi)設(shè)新的研究生課程,然后在Polytechnics工藝學(xué)校逐漸開(kāi)設(shè)本科生課程。從小小的一滴水漸漸發(fā)展到了研究生的急流”。他追憶他在利物浦大學(xué)第一次景觀建筑學(xué)的正式教學(xué),在那里,第一任景觀學(xué)會(huì)主席Thomas Mawson (1861-1933)在1909年給建筑系的學(xué)生開(kāi)設(shè)了一系列的講座。第一個(gè)本科生水平的有文憑的課程開(kāi)始于1932年,在1933年最先建立的景觀建筑師學(xué)會(huì)出版了一套考試大綱。而由校外機(jī)構(gòu)主持的考試體制在1946年建立(Lancaster, 1987)。1984年景觀專業(yè)有兩個(gè)新的講座設(shè)立,一個(gè)在Newcastle 大學(xué)的Kings學(xué)院(后來(lái)部分在Durham大學(xué)),另一個(gè)在倫敦大學(xué)的King’s學(xué)院。Newcastle的課程在Brian Hackett教授的影響之下堅(jiān)定地基于設(shè)計(jì)的生態(tài)的原則。
The 1960s saw the establishment of further lectureships and an expansion of courses at various Universities (Edinburgh, Manchester and Sheffield) and at art colleges (Gloucester, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, London and Dundee). The Institute established an educational visiting panel in 1973 to assess the programmes of the various schools. Most of the art college courses were then absorbed into Polytechnics (Lancaster, 1987) and in 1992 Polytechnics achieved University status. The gap between the former Polytechnics and the old Universities in terms of academic approaches began to close, however the more recent emphasis on research as a measure of academic value has in some cases put considerable pressure on the new Universities whose original establishment were based on more technical objectives.
十九世紀(jì)六十年代,在不同的大學(xué)(Edinburgh, Manchester and Sheffield)和藝術(shù)學(xué)院(Gloucester, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, London and Dundee)設(shè)立了更多的講座,課程也有了擴(kuò)展。景觀學(xué)會(huì)在1973年建立了一個(gè)教育考察小組以評(píng)估不同學(xué)校的課程計(jì)劃。大多數(shù)藝術(shù)學(xué)院的課程被Polytechnics(Lancaster, 1987)工藝學(xué)校所吸納,在1992年P(guān)olytechnics工藝學(xué)校獲得了“大學(xué)”的地位。先前的Polytechnics工藝學(xué)校和老牌大學(xué)之間在理論方法上的差距逐漸消失,然而近來(lái)把更多的重點(diǎn)放在研究上作為一種學(xué)術(shù)價(jià)值的衡量,這在某些情況下給那些原來(lái)建立在更技術(shù)化目標(biāo)基礎(chǔ)上的新興的大學(xué)很大壓力。
In 1974 it was decided that landscape scientists and managers should be able to join the Institute and it was renamed in 1975 as the ‘Landscape Institute’. Landscape programmes pertaining to these specialisations also came gradually under the remit of the Institute’s inspection panel. The professional qualification was based for many years on a 4-part system. This system was later altered to one whereby students who had graduated from an accredited programme took professional practice exams (PPE) after two years in practice. Recently the system has been altered again to a more ‘candidate centred learning’ approach which aims to allow those wishing to take the PPE to progress at their own pace under the guidance of a mentor (Landscape Institute, 2004). The candidates keep professional practice record sheets of their experience in practice and are classed as Associate Members. When they are deemed ready they will undertake an oral examination and may proceed to full Membership of the Landscape Institute (MLI). The new system aims to be part of a wider Personal Development Programme that starts when candidates enter professional practice and carries on through Continuing Professional Development (CPD) and lifelong learning (Landscape Institute, 2004). Interestingly this philosophy is reminiscent of Loudon’s original recommendations in the 1800s for the education of young gardeners in England.
1974年景觀科學(xué)家和管理者被確定應(yīng)該可以加入學(xué)會(huì),緊接著1975年學(xué)會(huì)被重新命名為“景觀學(xué)會(huì)”。有關(guān)于這些專業(yè)的課程設(shè)置也逐漸交于學(xué)會(huì)的考察小組視察。該職業(yè)的資格審定多年來(lái)建立在一個(gè)由四部分組成的體系的基礎(chǔ)之上。這一體系后來(lái)變?yōu)檫@樣一個(gè)標(biāo)準(zhǔn),即從被認(rèn)可的系列課程畢業(yè)的學(xué)生在兩年的從業(yè)實(shí)踐之后取得職業(yè)實(shí)踐考試(PPE)的通過(guò)。最近這一體系又變?yōu)橐环N希望有更多的“關(guān)注學(xué)問(wèn)的投考者”的方式,這一改變?yōu)榈氖侨菰S那些希望在導(dǎo)師的指導(dǎo)之下通過(guò)PPE考試取得他們自身的進(jìn)步的人加入(Landscape Institute, 2004)。投考者要保存證明他們實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)的職業(yè)工作記錄的表格,然后被劃分成為“預(yù)備會(huì)員”。當(dāng)他們認(rèn)為已經(jīng)準(zhǔn)備好的時(shí)侯,他們需要接受一個(gè)口頭的測(cè)驗(yàn)從而可以成為景觀學(xué)會(huì)(MLI)的正式會(huì)員。新的體系致力于成為一個(gè)更廣闊的“個(gè)人發(fā)展計(jì)劃”的一部分,這個(gè)計(jì)劃開(kāi)始于投考者進(jìn)入職業(yè)生涯并通過(guò)“繼續(xù)職業(yè)發(fā)展”(CPD)和畢生的學(xué)習(xí)得以繼續(xù)(Landscape Institute, 2004)。有趣的是,這個(gè)理念可以說(shuō)是Loudon在十八世紀(jì)為英國(guó)青年園藝者的教育問(wèn)題所提的最初建議的舊事重提。
In 1992 Downing identified that the development of the pattern of Landscape Architecture higher education programmes in the UK had been in response to professional needs at the expense of research and the acquisition of higher (research) degrees. This picture is now changing as a result of pressures on universities and on Landscape Architecture academics to prove themselves by producing an increasing number of published research articles and books. In addition, the majority of PhD and research Masters students in the UK generally in the area of Landscape are overseas students. The quality of teaching in Landscape Architecture in the UK remains very high as evidenced by the demand from around the world for a British education. However, the numbers of home students attracted to all programmes have been affected by lack of funding for study and, up until recently, by poor starting salaries within the profession. There is an increasing emphasis on cross-disciplinary working and education. As landscape programmes become embedded within Schools which include other professions, such as Architecture and Planning, better opportunities are afforded for working with these professions at student level as well as for taking options in subject areas such as Urban Design, Architectural History, Planning Theory etc. The most recent and most important influence on student intake and numbers has been the encouragement by China and other countries for their students to study in the UK.
1992年,Downing看到:在英國(guó),景觀建筑學(xué)高等教育計(jì)劃模式的發(fā)展正以研究為代價(jià)和以更高級(jí)(研究的)學(xué)位的獲得來(lái)響應(yīng)職業(yè)的需求。 由于各個(gè)大學(xué)和景觀建筑學(xué)院所受到的壓力,這一景象現(xiàn)在正在改變,他們出版不斷增長(zhǎng)的研究文章和書籍以證明自己。另外,在英國(guó),景觀領(lǐng)域的大部分博士生和碩士研究生都是海外留學(xué)生。英國(guó)的景觀建筑學(xué)領(lǐng)域的教學(xué)質(zhì)量一直保持著非常高的水平,從世界各地而來(lái)接受不列顛教育的需求看就可以得到證實(shí)。然而,對(duì)所有課程感興趣的本地學(xué)生的數(shù)量由于研究基金的缺乏而受到影響,這一情況一直持續(xù)到最近,另外還受到這一職業(yè)一開(kāi)始的偏低的薪水的影響。如今越來(lái)越強(qiáng)調(diào)跨學(xué)科的工作和教育。因?yàn)榫坝^的課程編排變成有很多學(xué)院的介入,包括其他職業(yè)的例如建筑學(xué)和規(guī)劃專業(yè),所以可以提供更好的機(jī)會(huì)以學(xué)生的水平與這些專業(yè)的人一起工作,也可以在很多專題領(lǐng)域提供選擇,諸如城市設(shè)計(jì),建筑歷史,規(guī)劃理論等等。在學(xué)生的吸納量和數(shù)量上,最近期和最重要的影響力是來(lái)自中國(guó)和其他的國(guó)家在英國(guó)學(xué)習(xí)的學(xué)生的鼓勵(lì)。
With regard to landscape practice and education there is now a strong and growing influence on Britain as a result of the European Union. The Council of Europe’s Landscape Convention is a landmark in the recognition that all landscapes should be considered as valuable, and that landscape is ‘a(chǎn) key element of individual and social well-being and quality of life’ (CoE, 2003:preamble). The Convention emphasises that landscape cannot be protected by drawing lines around what are considered ‘outstanding’ areas at the expense of others. All landscapes have the potential to hold some kind of meaning, provide identity and benefit to the community, and landscape ‘must be recognised and protected independently from its value’ (Priore, 2001:32). By doing this, the Convention also raises the profile of landscape professionals. In addition, the European Union has provided considerable finance for the ‘Le Notre’ Thematic Network project which has brought together the majority of the Universities and organizations teaching landscape subjects throughout Europe to collaborate to achieve a greater mutual understanding concerning educational issues (see www.le-notre.org/).
關(guān)于景觀的實(shí)踐和教育,作為加入歐洲聯(lián)盟的結(jié)果,現(xiàn)在有一種強(qiáng)大的且日益強(qiáng)大的的力量影響到英國(guó)。歐洲景觀大會(huì)委員會(huì)在對(duì)景觀的認(rèn)識(shí)過(guò)程中是一個(gè)里程碑,他們認(rèn)為所有的景觀都應(yīng)該被認(rèn)為是有價(jià)值的,景觀是“個(gè)人和社會(huì)的福利和基本生活條件的一個(gè)關(guān)鍵元素” (CoE, 2003:preamble)。景觀大會(huì)強(qiáng)調(diào)景觀不是在我們認(rèn)為“出色的”地方畫一個(gè)圈而犧牲其他別的景觀就可以得到保護(hù)了。所有的景觀都有潛力擁有某種含義,提供特征鑒別和使社區(qū)受益,同時(shí)景觀“必須被承認(rèn)和保護(hù),而不僅僅因?yàn)樗膬r(jià)值” (Priore, 2001:32)。在宣傳這一理念的同時(shí),景觀大會(huì)也提升了景觀從業(yè)人員的形象。另外,歐洲聯(lián)盟為“勒 諾特”主題網(wǎng)站計(jì)劃提供了大量的經(jīng)費(fèi),這個(gè)計(jì)劃已經(jīng)把歐洲的大多數(shù)教授景觀學(xué)科的大學(xué)和組織聯(lián)合在一起,以期獲得對(duì)于教育問(wèn)題的更好的相互理解(見(jiàn) www.le-notre.org/)。
There are seven Universities in the UK now offering professionally accredited landscape architecture programmes. Newcastle University’s professionally accredited postgraduate Master of Landscape Architecture (MLA) programme was the oldest active course in Landscape Architecture in Britain until it’s suspension in 2004. This suspension was a result of the continuing political and economic onslaught waged against higher education in the UK and an astounding casualty in the light of growing demand for professionals in Britain and professional education in landscape from abroad. However, Newcastle still runs thriving research student (PhD, MPhil and MA) programmes in landscape based on its high research status.
在英國(guó),現(xiàn)在有7所大學(xué)專業(yè)地提供認(rèn)可的景觀建筑學(xué)課程。Newcastle大學(xué)的專業(yè)認(rèn)可的景觀建筑學(xué)(MLA)學(xué)科的碩士研究生課程是英國(guó)景觀建筑學(xué)界開(kāi)設(shè)時(shí)間最久的熱門課程,直到2004年被中止。這次課程的中止是因?yàn)槌掷m(xù)的政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)的沖擊對(duì)高等教育造成了工資的拖欠,而結(jié)果是對(duì)該職業(yè)在英國(guó)的日益增長(zhǎng)的需要和國(guó)外對(duì)景觀職業(yè)教育的需要這兩方面產(chǎn)生了驚人的傷害。然而,Newcastle因其在景觀界基于一個(gè)很高的研究地位,所以在別的研究性學(xué)生(PhD, MPhil and MA)課程方面仍然十分興旺。
In landscape architectural education in Britain, the emphasis has been on studio work as the core of the landscape programme. Generally the philosophy is that students learn a variety of subject areas and then demonstrate how they have synthesised this knowledge in the production of their design projects. Teaching is generally carried out on a modular basis and many programmes allow for some specialisation and choice in the type of project and optional modules that may be taken. The problem with landscape architectural education has always been how many subjects to cover and to what depth. Over the last 10 years there has been a radical change in presentation and production of design projects as a result of computer-based technologies. However, this has also meant that students have had to acquire additional skills to the traditional hand drawn skills putting an extra burden on their time. Studio projects vary from abstract to practical and most Schools now use real projects as the basis for many of their studios. There is still much debate in British Schools about how students acquire design skills. However the greatest landscape architects are seen not just as synthesisers, but interpreters of know facts (Clark, 1969:6). The ‘old’ Universities generally have an emphasis on knowledge-based teaching whilst the ‘new’ Universities, formerly Polytechnics, are still biased towards skills-based learning. This caters for a wide range of potential professionals including those who might be magnificent designers, but might not be so good at written arguments and analysis, and vice-versa. At Newcastle University the emphasis has been on the development of independent observation, learning skills and project resolution. A strongly research-based approach is used to solve complex landscape problems and develop personal design approaches. In many areas of work in the UK the process of design is regarded as equally important as the product, and it is I think fair to say that in academia there is still more emphasis on process than in the professional world, where product is all-important.
英國(guó)的景觀建筑學(xué)教育把重點(diǎn)放在工作室的工作上,以此作為景觀課程的核心。一般來(lái)說(shuō),基本的原理就是學(xué)生在不同的學(xué)科領(lǐng)域?qū)W習(xí),然后他們要表明是如何綜合地運(yùn)用這些知識(shí)在他們的設(shè)計(jì)方案的作品之中。教學(xué)在一整套模式的基礎(chǔ)上逐漸展開(kāi),很多課程編排都慮及一些特殊的學(xué)科和在設(shè)計(jì)的類型和可能采取的模式的選擇。景觀建筑學(xué)教育的問(wèn)題始終是有多少學(xué)科需要覆蓋極其深度。在過(guò)去的10年里,基于計(jì)算機(jī)的技術(shù),在設(shè)計(jì)方案的表現(xiàn)和最終成果上有了根本上的改變。然而,這也意味著學(xué)生除了傳統(tǒng)的手繪圖技巧外,必須用他們的時(shí)間擔(dān)起額外的負(fù)擔(dān)以掌握新的技巧。工作室的方案從抽象的到實(shí)際的各不相同,大多數(shù)學(xué)院現(xiàn)在為許多他們的工作室都使用真實(shí)的工程項(xiàng)目作為基礎(chǔ)。在英國(guó)的院校,現(xiàn)在仍然有很多關(guān)于如何使學(xué)生掌握設(shè)計(jì)技巧的爭(zhēng)論??墒亲顐ゴ蟮木坝^建筑師似乎不僅是綜合能手,也是已知事物的解釋者(Clark, 1969:6)。“老牌的”大學(xué)通常注重基于知識(shí)性的教學(xué),同時(shí)“新興的”大學(xué),也就是先前的Polytechnics 工藝學(xué)校,則依然偏重對(duì)基于技巧的學(xué)習(xí)。這種情況滿足了相當(dāng)大范圍的潛在的職業(yè)者的需要,包括那些可能成為出色的設(shè)計(jì)者但是不善于論戰(zhàn)和分析的人,反之亦然。在Newcastle大學(xué),學(xué)習(xí)的重點(diǎn)在于自由的觀察力的發(fā)展,學(xué)習(xí)方法和設(shè)計(jì)能力的發(fā)展。現(xiàn)在一種充分的基于研究而來(lái)的方法被用來(lái)解決復(fù)雜的景觀問(wèn)題和發(fā)展個(gè)人的設(shè)計(jì)風(fēng)格。在英國(guó)的工作的很多領(lǐng)域,設(shè)計(jì)的過(guò)程被認(rèn)為與成果同等重要。我認(rèn)為公平地說(shuō),在學(xué)術(shù)界比之職業(yè)領(lǐng)域更多地強(qiáng)調(diào)過(guò)程,在后者成果是首要的。
There has been for many years a difficult balance between an academic training and a professional one in the landscape and allied professions such as architecture and planning. In landscape there has been an emphasis in professional practice on function over aesthetics, with some outstanding exceptions – but this balance may change as a result of the influence of the present President, Professor Kathryn Moore. There is also a demand to teach architects and landscape architects together, but although this can provide benefits, there are still tensions evident which result from the fact that landscape architecture is ‘much more concerned with process, growth, change and time as opposed to finite form line and unchanging spaces, which are so much the concern of architecture’ (Holden, 2003:9). An increasingly close liaison between professionals and academic institutions can be seen in many studio projects and other subject areas which are now delivered by professionals co-opted to the programmes.
很多年以來(lái)在學(xué)術(shù)的培養(yǎng)和職業(yè)的訓(xùn)練之間始終是一個(gè)艱難的平衡,包括其他相關(guān)的專業(yè)如建筑學(xué)和規(guī)劃。在景觀界,除了一些杰出的案例以外,實(shí)際工作中重視功能甚于美學(xué)——但是由于現(xiàn)任主席Kathryn Moore 教授的影響,這種情況正在改變。另外,也有一種需要把建筑師和景觀建筑師聯(lián)合起來(lái)授課,盡管這樣做有很多益處,但是仍然有明顯的不協(xié)調(diào)之處,這些矛盾源于一些事實(shí),即景觀建筑師“更多的關(guān)注于過(guò)程,發(fā)展,變化和時(shí)機(jī)而不是有限形態(tài)的線條和不變的空間,然而這些正是建筑師的焦點(diǎn)” (Holden, 2003:9)。在職業(yè)者和學(xué)術(shù)組織之間越來(lái)越緊密的聯(lián)系在很多項(xiàng)目工作室和其他學(xué)科領(lǐng)域都可以看到,后者現(xiàn)在得到在課程學(xué)習(xí)中新加入的專業(yè)人員的很大幫助。
[NextPage]
Crystal Gazing: British Landscape Architecture into the 21st Century
展望:21世紀(jì)的英國(guó)景觀建筑學(xué)
It would seem that the present features of British landscape architectural practice are likely to continue with the demand for consideration of greater sustainability influencing the long-term vision and the development of awareness, expertise and a ‘sociological imagination’ (Julings, 1999:7) amongst design professionals. There is a new energy in the Landscape Institute, which has undergone considerable change since the achievement of the Royal Charter in 1997 finally indicating recognition by the establishment of the importance of this body and its members.
英國(guó)景觀建筑學(xué)實(shí)踐當(dāng)前的特征似乎很可能要延續(xù)對(duì)更可持續(xù)發(fā)展考慮的需求,這一理念正影響著景觀界的遠(yuǎn)景,同時(shí)也要繼續(xù)發(fā)展景觀意識(shí),專家意見(jiàn)和在設(shè)計(jì)者中間的“社會(huì)想象力”(Julings, 1999:7)。自從1997年完成“皇室憲章”以來(lái)——這個(gè)憲章最終以其和其成員價(jià)值的確立為標(biāo)志得到了認(rèn)可,在景觀學(xué)會(huì)中有一種新生的力量經(jīng)歷著巨大的變化。
There is a tendency for the British to look backwards to various ‘golden ages’ in landscape – as seen by the influence of the Heritage Lottery funding on the restoration of urban parks. This is often at the expense of embracing contemporary needs and innovative design thinking. However there is also a new awareness of the creative benefits of cross-disciplinary collaboration with artists and other designers. There is also a growing appreciation of the value of the whole of our landscape heritage – including industrial and social heritage - rather than the desire to simply ‘cover up’ what once were regarded as unseemly scars of social and industrial processes on the British landscape. A growing interest in cultural and aesthetic values of ordinary people in relation to landscape may temper some of the corporate excesses which were evident in the landscape design of the 1980s and 1990s. However, there is also considerable pressure from economic and political quarters. Britain is a small country with a large population and complex political and economic issues; the demand for land means that pressures are high in relation to landscape schemes. The profession in Britain is presently crying out for young landscape architects – there is much work to do and too few professionals to do it.
在英國(guó)景觀界總是有一種回顧以往各種“黃金時(shí)代”的傾向——這可以從“傳統(tǒng)彩票”基金在城市公園復(fù)興項(xiàng)目上的影響力上看到。這經(jīng)常以滿足當(dāng)代的需求和創(chuàng)新設(shè)計(jì)思想為代價(jià)。但是無(wú)論如何也有了一個(gè)新的認(rèn)識(shí),那就是在藝術(shù)家和其他設(shè)計(jì)者之間的跨學(xué)科的合作具有創(chuàng)造性的裨益。同時(shí),對(duì)我們的景觀整體的價(jià)值有了一個(gè)越來(lái)越正確的評(píng)價(jià)——包括工業(yè)的和社會(huì)的遺產(chǎn)——而不是急迫地想要簡(jiǎn)單地“掩蓋”在不列顛的景觀上我們?cè)?jīng)認(rèn)為是在社會(huì)和工業(yè)化過(guò)程中留下的不體面的傷疤。普通人在景觀方面對(duì)文化和美學(xué)價(jià)值日益增長(zhǎng)的興趣或許也調(diào)和了專業(yè)團(tuán)體中一些過(guò)度的傾向,這種過(guò)度的現(xiàn)象在十九世紀(jì)八十年代和九十年代的景觀設(shè)計(jì)中尤為明顯。然而仍然有來(lái)自經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治方面的巨大壓力。不列顛是一個(gè)有著很多人口和復(fù)雜的政治和經(jīng)濟(jì)事務(wù)的小國(guó);對(duì)陸地的需要意味著在涉及景觀的規(guī)劃時(shí)壓力是很大的。目前景觀職業(yè)在英國(guó)十分期待年輕景觀建筑師的出現(xiàn)——很多工作有待于完成而幾乎沒(méi)有專業(yè)人員來(lái)做這些事。
There is a growing recognition for the need to base landscape decisions on good research and theory as well as good practice and there are increasing calls for the Landscape Institute to provide stronger ethical guidance on the difficult problems facing practitioners. We in British landscape architecture perhaps need to take Jellicoe’s advice and build upon the strengths and traditions of the British culture and character. We should not reproduce internationalist styles, design and thinking born from globalisation which provides little or no reference to the cultural needs, the history or character of the British landscape. Certainly there are a number of academics now in the UK providing useful critique on landscape issues. Their writings are likely to be as influential on the profession as those of the remarkable landscape architects of the mid part of the 20th century. Over the years the profession in Britain has had ‘long fingers’ stretching to influence many parts of the world through professional practice and educational collaboration and this is likely to continue.
越來(lái)越成為共識(shí)的是,需要把景觀設(shè)計(jì)建立在良好的研究和理論,還有良好的實(shí)踐的基礎(chǔ)之上,越來(lái)越多的呼聲希望景觀學(xué)會(huì)在從業(yè)者面臨的難題上能提供強(qiáng)有力的具民族特色的指導(dǎo)。我們英國(guó)的景觀建筑學(xué)也許需要采納Jellicoe’s 的建議,強(qiáng)化英國(guó)的文化和特征的實(shí)力和傳統(tǒng)。我們不應(yīng)該復(fù)制在全球化條件下產(chǎn)生的國(guó)際主義的風(fēng)格,設(shè)計(jì)和思想,它幾乎不能或許絲毫不能提供對(duì)文化需求的參考,對(duì)英國(guó)景觀的歷史和特征的參考。當(dāng)然目前在英國(guó)有很多學(xué)術(shù)組織對(duì)景觀問(wèn)題提出有益的批評(píng)。他們的文章很有可能像那些在二十世紀(jì)中期杰出的景觀建筑師一樣對(duì)這個(gè)專業(yè)產(chǎn)生影響。很多年以來(lái),通過(guò)職業(yè)實(shí)踐和合作教育,英國(guó)的景觀職業(yè)有了“很長(zhǎng)的觸角”,向外延伸影響了世界的很多地方,而且,這種狀況將繼續(xù)下去。
Robert Holden, a British academic and practitioner, writes that landscape architecture in Britain is ‘a(chǎn)n economically marginal area with comparatively small budgets’ (Holden, 2003:6). Holden also criticises those who see the discipline of landscape ‘a(chǎn)s a profession first – in a narrow, exclusive and limiting sense – rather than as a uniquely liberating and all-embracing activity; part art form, part scientific, part totally practical and part political’ (ibid). Thompson (1999) agrees that landscape architecture can ‘exert a powerful attraction for those who discover it, for it offers a way to combine scientific knowledge with artistic endeavour, in an enterprise which, for the most part, is clearly on the side of the angels’ (p. xi). There is thus recognition that landscape practitioners in Britain are striving in their work to achieve results through a leap of the imagination based on the sound science of landscape. There is no absolute ‘truth’ to be found in this process but a need for vision and perhaps we should refer to the example of William Kent (1685-1748) the English garden designer who, according to the writer Horace Walpole, ‘leaped the fence, and saw that all nature was a garden’ (Thacker, 1979:184).
英國(guó)學(xué)者和從業(yè)者Robert Holden寫道:不列顛的景觀建筑學(xué)是“經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)上的邊緣地區(qū),相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)只有很少的一部分預(yù)算” (Holden, 2003:6)。Holden也批判那些人,他們視景觀學(xué)科“首先是一種職業(yè)——一種狹窄的,排外的和有限的理解—— 而不是作為一種獨(dú)一無(wú)二的解放的和完全開(kāi)放的活動(dòng):部分是形態(tài)藝術(shù),部分是科學(xué),部分是完全實(shí)踐性的,部分甚至是政治的” (ibid)。Thompson (1999)贊許說(shuō)景觀建筑學(xué)能夠“對(duì)那些在這個(gè)事業(yè)中發(fā)現(xiàn)它的人發(fā)揮出強(qiáng)大的吸引力,因?yàn)樗峁┝艘环N結(jié)合科學(xué)知識(shí)和藝術(shù)魅力的方式,而對(duì)于這個(gè)事業(yè)的絕大部分來(lái)說(shuō)無(wú)疑是站在天使的這一邊” (p. xi)。人們有這樣的認(rèn)識(shí),即英國(guó)的景觀從業(yè)者在他們的工作中竭盡全力,希望在景觀合理的科學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)上通過(guò)想象的飛躍獲得成果。在這個(gè)過(guò)程中找不到絕對(duì)的“真理”,但是我們需要期待未來(lái),也許我們應(yīng)該仿效William Kent (1685-1748)的例子,按照作家Horace Walpole的說(shuō)法,這位英國(guó)園藝設(shè)計(jì)家“越出了圍籬,從而發(fā)現(xiàn)整個(gè)自然就是一個(gè)花園” (Thacker, 1979:184)。
Acknowledgements:
Thanks to Mike Downing for free use of his information, for editorial suggestions and advice on facts relating to this chapter.
References:
Aldous, T. & Clouston, B. (1979) Landscape by Design, (London: Heinemann)
Beazley, E. (1969) Designed for Recreation (London: Faber & Faber)
- (1960) Design and Detail of the Space Between Buildings (London: The Architectural Press)
Benson, J. F. & Roe, M. H. (2000) Landscape and Sustainability (London: Spon Press)
Clark, H. F. (1969) On Design 1: Thoughts on the nature of design, Journal of the ILA, 86 May p.6
Colvin, B. (1979) Land and Landscape (London: John Murray, Council of Europe)
- (1972) Trees for Town & Country (London: Humphries)
Council of Europe (CoE) (2003) The European Landscape Convention, available at www.pcl-eu.de/project/convention/conv.php (accessed 8.4.2003).
Crowe, S. (1956) Tomorrow’s Landscape (London: Architectural Press)
- (1958) The Landscape of Power (London: Architectural Press)
- (1960) The Landscape of Roads (London: Architectural Press)
- (1966) Forestry in the Landscape (London: HMSO)
Downing, M. F. (1992) Landscape Architectural Education in the United Kingdom in: Teaching Landscape Architecture in Europe, Erasmus Bureau (Brussels: European Foundation for Landscape Architecture (EFLA)) pp.71-76
Fairbrother, N. (1970) New Lives, New Landscapes (London: Architectural Press)
Fricker, L. J. (1969) Forty Years A-Growing, Institute of Landscape Architects Journal, May pp.8-15
Hackett, B. (1977) Landscape Reclamation Practice (IPC Science and Technology Press).
Hill, K. (2000) Visions of Sustainability, in: Benson, J. F. and Roe, M. H. (Eds) Landscape and Sustainability (London: Spon Press) pp.294-311.
Holden, R. (2003) New Landscape Design (London: Laurence King)
Horticulture Week (1991) Designed for the subconscious (interview with Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe), November 1, pp.24-25
Irvine, S. (1999) The globalisation debate, The Ecologist 29(5) August/September pp.330-331
Jellicoe, G. A. & Jellicoe, S. (1975) The Landscape of Man (London: Thames & Hudson)
Julings, P. (1999) Social side to the urban renaissance, Letter to the Editor, Landscape Design, 286 p. 7
Lancaster, M. L. (1987) Education for Landscape Architecture in Britain, in: Jellicoe, G. Jellicoe, S., Goode, P. and Lancaster, M. (Eds) The Oxford Companion to Gardens (Oxford: OUP) p.324
Landscape (2004) Special Issue: New Lives, New Landscapes (75th Anniversary edition), No. 7.
Landscape Institute (1996) Director General’s Newsletter, August.
Landscape Institute (2004) Guidance Notes and Documentation: PPE New Model Pilot Programme.
McHarg, I. (1969) Design with Nature (New York: The Natural History Press, Garden City)
Moggridge, H. (1998) Gardens and Landscapes 1930-2000, Conference Paper for Garden History Society and Twentieth Century Society, September 1998.
Newcastle University (1971) Landscape Reclamation Volume 1 and 2: A report on Research into Problems of Reclaiming Contaminated Land, IPC Business Press
Priore (2001) The Background to the European Landscape Convention, in: Kelly, R., Macinnes, L., Thackray, D. & Whitbourne, P. (Eds) The Cultural Landscape: Planning for a sustainable partnership between people and place (London: ICOMOS-UK) pp.31-37.
Roe, M. H. (2000) The Social Dimensions of Landscape Sustainability, in: Benson, J. F. and Roe, M. H. (Eds) Landscape and Sustainability (London: Spon Press) pp.52-77.
Shepheard, P. (1953) Modern Gardens (London: Architectural Press)
Simo, M. L. (1988) Loudon and the Landscape: From Country Seat to Metropolic 1783-1843 (New Haven: Yale University Press)
Tandy, C. R. V. (Ed.) (1970) Handbook of Urban Landscape (London: Architectural Press)
- (1975) Landscape of Industry (London: Architectural Press)
Thompson, I. H. (1999) Ecology, Community and Delight: Sources of Values in Landscape Architecture (London: Spon)
Thacker, C. (1979) The History of Gardens (London: Croom Helm)
Thayer, R. L. (1994) Gray World, Green Heart: technology, nature and the sustainable landscape (New York: John Wiley & Sons)
Tregay, R. and Gustavson, R. (1983) Oakwood’s New Landscapes: Designing for nature in the residential environment, Report No 15, Alnarp:Sveriges Landtbruksuniversitet/Warrington and Runcorn Development Corporation.
Tregay, R. (1985) Design Revisited: Formality and Naturalistic Expression in the Design of Nature-like Landscapes, Report 86/11 (Alnarp: Institutionen for Landskapsplanering Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet)
Weddle, A. (1967) Techniques of Landscape Architecture (London: Heinemann)
Maggie Roe, BA (Hons) DipLD MDesS MLI is a Senior Lecturer with the Landscape Research Group in the School of Architecture, Planning & Landscape at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. She studied at Leeds Metropolitan University (UK) and the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University (USA). She worked in practice in the north-east of England prior to joining Newcastle University in 1993. She has published academic papers and books including Landscape & Sustainability (2000), which she edited with John Benson. Her research interests are based on large scale landscape planning and sustainability issues, particularly in relation to people’s perception of and relationship with the landscape. She won the Landscape Institute (UK) Award (Research Category) in November 2001 for Research on Landscape and Community and is a member of the Landscape Institute Research Committee.